Impact of Technology in War Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Impact of Technology in War - Term Paper Example Historical findings denoted that ancient mechanisms of handling war and the materials derived complications deterred the desired prompt confrontation, aggression, and combating of enemies in the battlefields. However, the advancement in technology led to the development of machineries that eased transportation of military equipment and personnel with increased convenience and accessibility to the war fields. The development of the wheel marked the advent ease in logistics. Since then, human societies developed engines and which further symbolized their application in locomotives to the currently used trucks, jetfighters, and military helicopters among others. Through the development of the engine, militarization advanced accordingly as nations converted the technology to power sophisticated weapons such as long-range missiles, atomic bombs, and rockets launchers in warships (Thompson 48). Similarly, technology poses as the origin of increased rate intelligence among nations, and comm unication among allied and enemy nations in their militaries. The history of plane carriers and airships dates back to the 1880s. However, research establishes that the First World War implemented a new outlook on improvisation of war machineries to confront enemies at a large scale as global powers engaged into war. The 1914-1918 war involved European nations, which varied and disagreed on policies and their overseas interests. These factors resulted to increased tensions among the nations, and experts subsequently engaged in innovation and development of weapons to ensure defensive against their unprecedented enemies who also indulged in production of weapons. Eventually, the nations entered... Adolf Hitler, one of the world’s ruthless dictators from Germany devised a technological aircraft with the ideology that he could suppress the advancing eastern allies. This was in 1944 during the Second World War when the European allied nations of capitalists strategized and engaged on a retaliatory battle the German soldiers drive out of their territories and possibly disintegrate the country’s power to a nutshell. German engaged on unprecedented aggression in the European nations and had won incredibly over the unpreparedness of the preys thus weakening confrontation and broadening its boundaries. The battle advanced to France, Belgium, and Spain and with such success, Hitler perceived that he could possibly suppress and bring the United Kingdom under his dictatorial regime. The desired plans hit an end after the toppled powers reorganized their armies and allied with the UK and U.S.A to attack the German side.The allied troops of the capitalist European nations man aged to engage in a successful battle that suppressed the German troops to Rome, the city of Italy. During this time, Hitler engaged on an alternative approach to tackle the aggressing allied troops who fought on land and simultaneously conducted air strikes to diminish the power of the Germany completely. Mainly, the airstrikes conducted by the eastern frontier targeted weaponry manufacturing industries in German as it was the only way the countries could diminish the level at which the Nazis could retaliate during the rebellious retreat.

Shindler's List Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Shindler's List - Essay Example Plot summary: The film’s plot revolves around the central character, Oskar Schindler. This protagonist is entirely different from conventional heroes because he is a cunning businessman. For instance, Schindler manipulates businessmen and slaves among the Jews in Europe. Besides, he was German and a member of Nazi Party. Gradually, he came to realize the fact that he is so attached to the Jewish slaves who worked for him in his factory. Thereafter, his aim was to save his workers from the Nazis. In the end, Schindler was able to save his workers and relocated them to a new site. But Schindler was aware of the fact that his identity as the member of Nazi Party will not help him to save himself from the Red Army. Besides, his workers agree with his plan to flee. Somehow, Schindler manages to escape from the Red Army and saves his life. Yosefa Loshitzky opined that, â€Å"As the first studio film to deal directly with the enormity of the Holocaust, one made by the most commercia lly successful director in the movie history, Schindler’s List attempts to provide the popular imagination with a master narrative about the Holocaust† (2). ... First of all, the director provides ample importance to the portrayal of the Polish Jews in the German concentration camps and ghettos. According to Jonathan Rosenbaum, â€Å"Likewise, SCHILDLER’S LIST assumes a desire to identify with the class in power; it can only tell us what it has to say about Schindler by turning us into Schindler-which also means turning us into a Nazi† (104). In the film, the Jewish victims of racial discrimination in Europe are relocated to a ghetto named as Krakow Ghetto. On the other side, Plaszow concentration camp is another location, where the victims are treated without mercy. To be specific, the Jews those who are not able to work are brutally murdered. In the film, Auschwitz concentration camp is another location where the Jewish victims are forced to undergo inhuman treatment from the German authorities. Gradually, the film’s plot develops into the lives of the Jewish workers under Schindler. In the initial stages, Schindler co nsidered his workers as mere slaves. Somehow, constant contact with the workers changed Schindler’s mind and he began to consider them as his extended family. This is entirely different from the atrocities faced by the other Jews during German holocaust. Tobias Goldschmidt stated that, â€Å"Spielberg’s most important argument for the production of Schindler’s List was the lack of knowledge about the Holocaust in the American society† (6). Still, Schindler’s Jews never mistrusted their master. They were aware of the fact that Schindler will not allow them to be in the hands of Gestapo. On the other side, Schindler’s relation with the members of Nazi Party was helpful for the Jewish workers. In addition, Schindler allowed his workers to

Process And Project Systems Construction Essay

Process And Project Systems Construction Essay Influential Govt reports presented by Latham (Latham 1994) and Egan (Egan 1998) which stressed the need of change in construction industry, improving current practices and processes covering the lifecycle of the project. Despite various initiatives the industry still lags behind and demands of end users remain far from being achieved. The construction industry being a process based industry (Halpin 1993); Kagioglou et al. (1998) point out that these issues are related to process, and not product (Goulding and Alshawi 2002). On the said guidelines efforts are being carried out by standardizing the working processes, defining responsibilities not in just construction phase but from inception to post completion. The report aims to find out advantages and disadvantages of moving towards Generic Design and Construction Process Protocol in the context of CTG project. For the purpose evaluation the current processes and sub processes in CTG are mapped using firstly by RIBA plan of work revised 2007 version incorporating single stage design build contract; later the same processes are mapped by using Process Protocol. An effort has been made to apply 8 principles of Process Protocol to CTG project. 1.1 Introduction Construction is a process based industry (Halpin 1993). 1.2 Scope of the GTC Project: The brief shows that the Department for Business Innovation and Skills (client) needs a high-tech office complex (CTG) to house world class super computers for nuclear design staff. Selected site for the project is in Liverpool, Uk. As per the statistics: Total Building Cost: Â £ 50,000,000, Project Size: 20,000 sqm, Built Up Area: 10,000,000 sqft The activities that are involved to carried out the end result are; Pre-design/Planning Activities, Design Activities, Construction Activities and Operation / Maintenance Activities. 1.3 Project Objectives of CTG: Achieving following objectives is crucial for the success of CTG project, 1) Design-to achieve balance in safety, security efficiency, lifecycle costs and working conditions. 2) Accessibility-To achieve compliance with all state requirements. 3) Aesthetics-to generate excitement and enthusiasm in new staff recruits.4) Cost effectiveness-to achieve cost certainty. 5) Energy- efficiency as electricity used annually is: 7,000 KWh. 6) Security-to make sure that the world class facility to construct and test super computers is under an extremely secured environment. 7) Sustainability-To achieve environmental goals using recyclable materials and overcoming concerns in terms of water and power. 8) Quality to achieve quality in terms of design, function and service provided. 9) Time-to achieve completion of the project within two years, the time given by the client. Throughout the process mapping it has been taken care that these objectives are being achieved. Though through use of Process P rotocol it was very easy to see in the process map that these objectives are being satisfied but through process mapping of CTG through RIBA it was not. 1.4 Project and Processes in Construction and in CTG: Project: The project can be defined as a temporary endeavour undertaken to create a unique product (PMBOK). Process: The process has been defined in number of ways and with perspectives, Hammer defines process as a related group of tasks that together create a result of value to a customer (Lecture Notes,2010). However (Koskela 2000) argues production processes, need to be analysed not only as transformations but also as flows and as value generation (Koskela 2000). 2. CHAPTER -2 RIBA Plan of work for Mapping a Process in CTG (from contructors point of view): (RIBA 2007; plan of work stages) 2.1 The reason for choosing RIBA Plan of work for Mapping: RIBA plan of work identifies the steps through which any construction project must pass (Hughes 2001), also it describes a logical sequence of action and describes duties of various parties at according to various stages of the project (Wilkinson and Gupta 2005). RIBA plan of work is widely used framework by the construction industry in UK and the updated 2007 plan incorporates various procurement practices (design build in CTG case) and risk management (Phillips,2008). 2.2 Introduction to RIBA plan of work: In an attempt to standardise the project process RIBA first introduced plan of work in 1963. The plan helps in organizing complete process in a sequence with required overlap where necessary. It starts right from appraisal stage through construction till end use, this process is divided into key work stages, depending upon the procurement method sequence of work stages may change and may overlap. RIBA 2007 plan of work stages are as follows: Preparation: a. Stage A Appraisal b. Stage B Design Brief Design: c. Stage C Concept d. Stage D Design Development e. Stage E Technical Design Preconstruction: f. Stage F Production Information Sub Stage F1 Acquiring necessary approvals, preparing details of production for tendering. Sub Stage F2 g. Stage G Tender Documentation h. Stage H Tender Action Sub Stage H1 Identification of potential contractors, consultants and suppliers. Sub Stage H2 Evaluating tenders and awarding contracts to the selected. Construction: i. Stage J Mobilization j. Stage K Construction to practical completion Use: k. Stage L Post practical completion Sub Stage L1 ensuring product delivered according to specification, and carrying out final inspections. Sub Stage L2 Review overall project performance, and the feedback provided by the end user. RIBA plan of work of single stage tender for Design and Build contract. Fig :RIBA Plan of Work for Design and Build contract, Single Stage Tender, (www.architcture.com) 2.3 Mapping the Process in CTG, using RIBA plan of work (from the Constructors point of view) Stage A Appraisal / Inception for CTG: Department for technology and skills (owner) appointed a cross functional teams to identify the clients needs and objectives, and possible constraints. Understanding the clients nature of business setting the requirements; safety, security, efficiency, lifecycle cost, working conditions, aesthetics, and future expansion needs (technological physical) Activities or Tasks: Identify procurement type (Single stage Design Build contract) Stage B Feasibility of CTG: Cross functional team and clients representatives prepare a project outline as per the clients requirement to meet the project objectives. Carrying out feasibility studies of the project from technical, functional and financial point of view. Activities or Tasks; As per project requirements study rules regulation, site conditions, neighbourhood surveys, market research, planning, costing, engage specialist consultant/s (computer expert) Stage C Concept / Outline Proposal of CTG: Parties involved: Design team, QS, engineers, specialist. Purpose of stage: Clarify clients ideas, suggesting or advising him better alternatives, giving client idea about the future developments in the project. Activities or Tasks: Stage D Design and Planning for the CTG: Parties involved: Design team and specialist contractor for check buildability of design, QS, IT consultant. Purpose of stage: Activities or Tasks: Stage G Tender Documentation and Bill of Quantities: Parties involved: Design team, QS, and client representative. Purpose of stage: Stage E Detail Design for CTG: Parties involved: Specialist design firm, QS, specialist contractor and client representative. Purpose of stage: Stage H Tender Action for CTG: Parties involved: a cross functional team, engineers, QS, design team, contractors, client representatives. Purpose of stage: Identify contractors to carry out the project. Activities or Tasks: Holding pretender briefing for prospective contractors on the project for putting forward expectation of client and clearing doubts of them. H1: Evaluation and identification of contractors to carry out CTG project. H2: contractors giving feedback / suggestions on tender or project to the client. Stage F Production Information: Parties involved: Architect, QS, specialist contractor, and engineers. Purpose of stage: Getting ready for onsite production and last gateway to make major changes in design. Activities or Tasks: finalizing the design and related specifications, obtaining the required permissions, detail costing and scheduling. Stage J Mobilization for CTG: Parties involved: Main contractor, sub contractors. Purpose of stage: gathering required resources to start the work on site. Activities or Tasks: Site preparation (clearing, fencing, establishing water/electricity, site office, residential facility for workers, health and safety unit). Preparing site conditions to commence the construction. Stage K Construction to Practical Completion of CTG: Parties involved: Main contractor, sub contractors, architect, QS, engineers, client representatives. Purpose of stage: Execute on site operations as per planned. Activities or Tasks : carrying out construction works till practical completion of CTG building. Stage L Post Practical Completion: Parties involved: Client representatives, contractor, sub contractor, QS, architect, engineers. Purpose of stage: Handing over of CTG facility completing all obligations. Activities or Tasks: clearing the site of any left behind materials, rectifying any defects, rechecking the facilities provided, and settling the accounts with client and sub contractor/suppliers, Stage M Feedback from CTG: Parties involved: Client representatives, employees working in CTG, sub contractors, supply chain. Purpose of stage: analyse the throughout project performance and learn from it (making of learning organization) Activities or Tasks: preparing reports evaluating delivered performances against planned. Checking whether project meets its objectives and client requirements. 3. Chapter 3 The Process Protocol 3.1 Introduction to Process Protocol: In an attempt Process Protocol is process-driven model of the design and construction process, which is primarily based on best practice manufacturing new product development (NPD) (Kagioglou, Cooper et al. 1999). Process Protocol consists of following ten phases covering life cycle of the project: a. Pre Project Stage: This stage relates to understanding the client and business needs. It also emphasises on issues such as need for This stage consist of following phases: 1) Phase 0- Demonstrating the need 2) Phase 1- Conception of need 3) Phase 2- Outline feasibility 4) Phase 3- Substantive feasibility study and outline financial authority. b. Pre Construction Stage: This stage consist of following phases 1) Phase 4- Outline conceptual design 2) Phase 5- Full conceptual design 3) Phase 6- Production design, procurement and full financial authority c. Construction Stage: This stage predominantly focuses on two phases 1) Phase 7- Production information 2) Phase 8- Construction d. Post Construction Stage: Phase 9- Operation and maintenance 3.2. Mapping the Process in CTG using Process Protocol: The computer aided software Microsoft Visio is used to draw Process Protocol maps, which is used to map the processes in CTG. The map includes activities carried out by cross functional team appointed by CTG which has carried out preliminary project work (phase0-5) and further (phase 6-9) activities undertaken by G C Ltd (appendix ). Hence phases (6-9) have been considered for mapping the sub processes. (appendix ) 3.3 Application of Eight Key Principles of Process Protocol in CTG: Whole Project View: CTG to house high tech computers for nuclear design staff, hence issues such as balance safety, security, working conditions along with lifecycle cost, sustainability, and need for flexibility to address advancement in technology need to be considered throughout the four stages of project to accomplish desired outcomes of the CTG Progressive Design Fixity: The phase review involves discussions, meetings, brainstorming sessions to review about accomplished work, this stage could contribute significantly in progressively fixing or finding design solutions also help in predicting the construction works and upcoming issues. A Consistent Process: Process protocol provides a standard approach to performance measurement, evaluation, and control will facilitate the process of continual improvement in design and construction which may benefit the future projects of CTG undertaken by G C Ltd. Stakeholder Involvement / Teamwork: As the value is determined by the customer, involvement of CTG representatives, employees who would be using the CTG should be involved in the design process along with other stakeholders such as municipal council, planning authority, defence committee, environmental dept, local community, fire and safety dept, international community need to be involved to have timely communication, foster team working, and building trust. Such involvement would reduce design alteration, rework failure to do so could lead to considerable budget escalation. Co-ordination: Addressing the fragmentation issue raised by Latham (1994), effective coordination between G C Ltd, sub contractor, suppliers, other specialist is important for improving overall productivity in CTG. Activity zones in PP help in achieving it through process manager represents the responsibility of each and every activity so it is easy to co-ordinate people for each particular activity. Feedback: process protocol helps in getting feedbacks in two ways : 1) Phase review: It records and update the project experiences throughout the process and inform next/later phases whether to increase or decrease resources next phase of CTG 2) Legacy archive: it records, documents the experiences throughout the process which aid in continual improvement in future projects of CTG and G C Ltd. Process flexibility Customizable process: It enables to bring in flexibility according to the objectives of CTG, issues such as security, sustainability could be added while some irrelevant processes could be deleted. 3.4 Activity Zones in CTG: activity zones are multifunctional representing structured set of tasks and processes which support and guide works towards common objective. At the same time earlier identification and involvement of concerned parties throughout the lifecycle process of CTG contributes significantly to success (Kagioglou, Cooper et al. 1998) Development Management: is responsible for creating and maintaining business focus among CTG representatives, contractors, financers, other stakeholders, and GC Ltd. (Cooper, Aouad et al. 2005) Project Management: is an agent of the development management activity zone and is responsible for effective implementation of CTG project. This activity zone involves project management professionals of GC Ltd, and client representatives. Resource Management:Includes planning, co-ordination, procurement and monitoring of all financial, human and material resources in CTG. It involves (Development Management establishes the overall budget) Design Management: is responsible for design process and business case of CTG and its project brief into an appropriate product definition. Involving GC Ltd, suppliers of materials/components, sub contractors, cross functional design team, representatives from production, facility, development, project management and health and safety, statutory and legal management activity zones. Production Management: The activities all that are related to the execution of the building on the site, this activity zone effectively communicates with the other zones during this execution period (Cooper, Aouad et al. 2005). Facility management: Issues concerning the facilities eg. servers, computer systems during the project are dealt in this activity zone. Health and safety, Statutory and Legal Management: is responsible for the identification, consideration, and management of all regulatory, statutory and environmental aspects of CTG project. Process Management: develops and operationalises process protocol. It is responsible for planning and monitoring each phase in CTG. Change Management: is responsible for effectively communicating changes to all relevant activity zones for development and legacy archive in CTG. 3.4.1 Introduction of Sustainability Management in Activity Zones: The built environment contribute significantly to the climate change and health of environment through the materials used, decisions about site, electricity and water usage, and landscape surroundings (Younger, Morrow-Almeida et al. 2008) they go on further to suggest the built environment components may mitigate climate change, promote adaptation, and improve public health. SMAZ was developed first in the form of a table (Khalfan et. al., 2003) and then further refined into an activity zone within the Process Protocol, implementing it in the same format (Shelbourn, Bouchlaghem et al. 2006). Sustainability being one of the main objectives in CTG introduction of SMAZ could help in achieving it. 3.5 Deliverables in CTG 4. Chapter 4 (Potential advantages and disadvantages of moving towards Process Protocol) 4.1.1 Critical Appraisal of Current methods of working RIBA plan of work and Process Protocol The RIBA plan of work is looked as design and management framework considering architect in the lead role (Osmani, Glass et al. 2008). It perceives construction process from design team/s point of view hence it restricts from being generic enough for application of complex and large construction works such as CTG. Shortcomings of the plan in terms of activity zones, phase reviews, legal archive etc. were noticed while mapping the process for CTG. While Process Protocol presents a generic implementation guidelines.(Kagioglou, Cooper et al. 1998) it can be applied in a flexible manner across construction projects, teams and client needs with benefits being clearly measured(Tzortzopoulos, Sexton et al. 2005). RIBA plan of work represents a logical sequence of events and his linear fashion of management could not accommodate the concurrent working practice in construction projects (Learning package 3). 4.3 Advantages of moving towards Process Protocol: a. Stakeholders Involvement: In a large and complex project such as CTG involving number of professionals from different disciplines (architect, engineers, contractors, QS ) makes it essential to know whom they are and would be working with in the later stages of the project, this builds team work, trust, brings in transparency consequently reducing chances of stalemates and litigations. Also extending it to the employees of CTG which would be ultimately can contribute significantly to the success of project. b. Whole Process view and Progressive Design Fixity via Stage gate Approach: Process Protocol and RIBA suggest to look at the project from pre project, pre -construction, construction and post completion phases deviating from traditional methods where pre project and post completion phases received negligible attention. Design fixity via stage gate approach enables continuous planning and review procedures throughout the project (Cooper, Aouad et al. 2005) c. Phase Reviews: Reviewing the output after each phase before getting on with the subsequent phase helps in gathering feedback which is useful for making future decisions or to make appropriate resources available. They provide a good learning experience. RIBA plan of work lacks this characteristic of process protocol. d. Legacy Archive: This is another feature of Process protocol lacking in RIBA. Throughout the project huge amount of information is generated, legacy archive helps in storing and making it available when required. As (Aouad, Hinks et al. 1998) state the legacy archive ensures that best practice is captured and re-used which would benefit during the project and post project to G C Ltd. Disadvantages of moving towards Process Protocol: There are very few disadvantages of mapping the process through process protocol which are: 1) The use of PP proves too complex and unnecessary for small construction project (single house) where mapping of such depth is not required, not many parties are involved. 2) The awareness of such software at this stage in market is very low, not many companies in practice use or know how to use it, which put limitations if its use. 3) Like RIBA revised plan PP lacks special provision for various contracting methods, tendering process. 4) Too much detailing involved in each phase where not so important activity may get undue weight age which can be misleading. 5. Chapter 5 (Key production activities in CTG, identifying value adding and non value adding activities) 5.1 Introduction: In recent years production is viewed from transformation view and flow view these two major aspects, which many argue should be synthesized into a new theoretical view on construction (Koskela 1999). The production in CTG can be analyzed as waste and value Key Production Activities in CTG: a. Effective Planning: Making optimum use of the available resources. 2) Required specialist and material / products (pre fabricated components) are made available at right time. 3) keeping enough buffer periods between activities. 4) Managing overlaps using the principles of concurrent engineering. 5) Use of environmentally friendly materials, techniques are used which would benefit the environment and building in long run. 6) Review physical, financial progress, monitoring and controlling it. 7) Breakdown the work packages for managing the project. b. Cost Controlling during construction: Forecast the budget for executing the CTG project. 2) Estimate costs for key as well as small work packages. 3) Regular audits to check expenditure committed and needed to complete the works. c. Coordinating and Communicating 1) 5.2 Value adding activities in CTG Value is generated through a process of negotiation between customer ends and means (Ballard and Howell 1998). One of the ways in which value can be added is by increasing the function and at the same time keeping cost same (Egbu, 2009). G C have undertaken the value management from winning the contract through the lifecycle of the project. Capturing requirements in clearly defining objectives. 2) Checking track record using competitive tenders in selecting sub contractors and suppliers. 3) Clear allocation of responsibilities and risks to avoid any confusion and litigation in the future. 4) Planning effectively and efficiently so at no point work is halted due to any reason. 5) Keeping contingency plan for works and cost eg. 6) Using JIT for very expensive high tech computers and servers to avoid double handling and damage. 7) green architecture concepts to reduce energy consumption in building (appendix) 8) Use of photovoltaic cells, Blooms Energy Server (appendix) to reduce dependence on external supply of electricity. 9) Methods such as rainwater harvesting to be used, treated water (from water treatment plants) to be used to cool down servers, gardening. 9) Excavated soil to be used to create landscape which will provide zero waste. 10) suspended ceilings to be used to accommodate heavy electrical wiring. 11) CTG h old 40 hour workshop for its employees on value management. 5.3 Wasteful activities in CTG Waste is anything that creates no value for the owner/end-user (CTG), it is something designers, constructors and clients want to eliminate because it creates no value for the customer and yet it is a cost to them (Mossman, 2009). Despite the best efforts and utmost precautions taken by G C there are likely to be some wastes or factors leading to it. 1) Waste of time due to miscommunication. 2) Non working days such as national holidays ( eg. 3rd May), union strikes 3) Untimely events such as rain, storm could stop the work. 4) Incorrect offsite manufacturing order which mismatches onsite component. 5) Excess of material lying on site consumes space, resources, chances of damage/theft 6) incorrect drawings for production could cost huge financially, rework and then manufacturing could cause time delays. 5.4 Efficiency of Identified Production Activity 5.5 Tools and Principles Used for Value Adding and reducing Wasteful Activities Material Requirement Planning: In a complex project as CTG, involving number work packages requires huge quantity and various types of materials and products at necessary stages of construction. It avoids excessive (unnecessary) stack of inventory; by controlling the flow of inventory it optimizes the utilization of labour and machines used in the project (Waller 2003). Last Planner Lean production: Principles of lean production such as just in time which focuses on eliminating waste and producing or making available just when needed. Eliminating waste would help in driving up the overall quality of CTG and procuring just on time would help in reducing excess inventory save space in city surroundings of Liverpool. =7AIBx 6. Chapter 6 (Conclusion and Recommendation) http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleListURL_method=list_ArticleListID=1262271380view=c_acct=C000047642_version=1_urlVersion=0_userid=8579047md5=b83cadfeeccb8117982b84fa9b7980a5 Aouad, G., J. Hinks, et al. (1998). An IT map for a generic design and construction process protocol. Journal of Construction Procurement 4(1): 132-151. Ballard, G. and G. Howell (1998). What kind of production is construction. Cooper, R., G. Aouad, et al. (2005). Process management in design and construction, Wiley-Blackwell. Egan, J. (1998). Rethinking Construction (the Egan Report). Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions, HMSO. Goulding, J. and M. Alshawi (2002). Generic and specific IT training: a process protocol model for construction. Construction Management and Economics 20(6): 493-505. Halpin, D. (1993). Process-based research to meet the international challenge. Journal of construction engineering and management 119(3): 415-425. Hughes, W. (2001). Evaluating plans of work. Engineering Construction and Architectural Management 8(4): 272-283. Kagioglou, M., R. Cooper, et al. (1998). A generic guide to the design and construction process protocol. Kagioglou, M., R. Cooper, et al. (1999). Re-engineering the UK construction industry: The process protocol. Kagioglou, M., R. Cooper, et al. (1998). Cross-industry learning: the development of a generic design and construction process based on stage/gate new product development processes found in the manufacturing industry. Koskela, L. (1999). Management of production in construction: a theoretical view, Citeseer. Koskela, L. (2000). An exploration towards a production theory and its application to construction. VTT PUBLICATIONS. Latham, S. (1994). Constructing the Team: The Latham Report. HMSO, London. Osmani, M., J. Glass, et al. (2008). Architects perspectives on construction waste reduction by design. Waste management 28(7): 1147-1158. Shelbourn, M., D. Bouchlaghem, et al. (2006). Managing knowledge in the context of sustainable construction. ITcon 11: 57-71. Tzortzopoulos, P., M. Sexton, et al. (2005). Process models implementation in the construction industry: a literature synthesis. Engineering Construction and Architectural Management 12(5): 470. Waller, D. (2003). Operations management: a supply chain approach, International Thomson Business Press. Wilkinson, S. and S. Gupta (2005). The Adaptability of the RIBA Plan of Work with the Design and Build Procurement Option. Construction Information Quarterly 7(1): 6-9. Younger, M., H. Morrow-Almeida, et al. (2008). The Built Environment, Climate Change, and Health. Am J Prev Med 35(5). Mossman, A. (2009). Creating value: a sufficient way to eliminate waste in lean design and lean production. Lean Construction Journal, 13-23. www.processprotocol.com www.architecture.com http://www.ribapublishing.com/publications/practicemanagement/planworkmulti.asp Query and Assumption Sheet: Query Assumption Type of a Contract Stage of the Project Design and Build (Single Stage) Pre Construction stage including detail Design Appendix : Process Mapping in CTG using RIBA Plan of Work Appendix : Process Mapping in CTG using Process Protocol Blooms Energy Server (appendix). its a new invention that generate electricity Built with patented solid oxide fuel cell technology, Blooms Energy Server is a new class of distributed power generator, producing clean, reliable, affordable electricity at the site

Mobilize Leaders to Accelerate Results :: essays research papers

Mobilize Leaders to Accelerate Results http://www.iveybusinessjournal.com/view_article.asp?intArticle_ID=538   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In this article coauthors, Brian Brittain, John Swain and Janice Simpson outline three tactics that have succeeded in unleashing productive energy and accelerating business results for organizations that have used them in a conscious and disciplined manner. Moreover, the ideas discussed in the writing are heavily related to the concepts confered by Chapter 12 in the textbook referring to strategic leadership. Specifically, Figure 12.4 shows a diagram of an exercise for gaining effective leadership. The author's ideology for their 3 common practices of strategic tactics known as; Beyond the cascade, Live the Story, and Implement a Sustaining Leadership Strategy are easily reflected by the materials are similar to the 3 directions of the exercise.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the fast-changing global workplace, there is no longer one organizational structure that can be used universally to increase organizational performance. Change is the only constant in today's global, knowledge-based economy. Leaders need skills necessary to think and act strategically in translating mission into objectives, developing plans and programs to accomplish objectives, and to implement plans and programs. Each organization, department, and division must define the best systems and structures for its specific vision, mission, strategies, and competencies. The leader must get input and support from the experts who are busy doing the work of the organization and create alignment with customers and stakeholders. The International manager/executive as well as public sector executives and manager should create a road map to build organizational systems that are dynamic, flexible, and outcome focused that are successful in creating high performance. Some pra ctical results I found to be important include:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1) Link organizational competencies to outcomes and results defined in your   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  strategic plan.

Biography and Artwork of Guy Harvey Essay

Guy Harvey was born in Lippspring Germany on September 16 1955. Guy Harvey is a 10th generation Jamaican as his family of German heritage immigrated there in 1664. Guy Harvey grew up next to the islands of Jamaica where there he spent most of his time diving and fishing of the islands southern coast. Guy soon fell in love and was fascinated by all types of fish and sea creatures. He then felt it necessary to re create all of these scenes in art so he began to draw a lot of marine life. Guy’s natural gift to recreate the underwater realm has propelled him from Professor of Marine Biology to a Wildlife Artist and Photographer. Guy initially opted for a scientific education, earning high honors in Marine Biology at Aberdeen University in Scotland in 1977. He continued his formal training at the University of West Indies, where he obtained a Doctorate in Fisheries Management. In 1985 guy began to recreate the novel â€Å"The Old Man and The Sea† by Ernest Hemingway into a b eautiful series of 44 pieces with pen and ink drawings. Guy enterered this artwork into museums in Jamaica. Guy received numerous awards and compliments on his pieces so by 1986 Guy went pro and then began providing artwork for merchandise such as apparel. Guy then became more involved with underwater photography where he traveled the world and became perfected the art of photographing free swimming billfish. Guy Harvey also became involved with scuba diving. Being underwater and on top of it enable guy to really get a better understanding of fish and marine life which makes his artwork that much more better and realistic. The Jamaica Committee presented Guy Harvey the Award of Excellence for his hands-on commitment to marine sciences, his inspired promotion of the protection of the marine environment and his philanthropy. The second is the Vasco Nunez de Balboa Grand Cross- the highest honor the country of Panama bestows on a non-Panamanian. Guy Harvey was presented this award for his work to preserve and publicize Panama’s marine resources. Lastly, the International Swimming Hall of Fame Gold Medallion Award. Presented each year to a former competitive swimmer for his or her national or international significant achievements in the field of science, entertainment, art, business, education, or government. Guy has also written numerous books toward the conservation of fish and other marine species as well as the biology aspects of his work. Guy Harvey is not only a full time artist, buy Guy is a huge conservationist. Guy has created organizations such as the Guy Harvey Ocean Foundation to help ensure conservation with marine organisms. Guy donates thousands of dollars to other organizations as well to make sure that we have life filled ocean in another one hundred years. References http://www.guyharvey.com/Biography http://www.natureartists.com http://www.depaulas.com

Perceived risk & gambling Essay

As of 2008, there were more than 2,000 internet gambling sites worldwide; with combined revenue of these websites being estimated to be north of $18 billion (Overview of Gambling Regulations, 2008). Due to its obscene rate of growth, potential harm to its consumers and growing ease of accessibility, internet gambling is viewed by many as a major cause for concern. Don’t expect the apprehension towards online gambling to ease up any time soon. Casinos, of both the online and brick-and-mortar variety are expected to aggressively increase their marketing budget over the next half decade. With online gambling recently legalized in Nevada, and many states preparing to follow suit, Simon Holliday, director at H2 Gambling Capital predicts that nearly $4 billion could be spent by the internet gaming sector over the next five years (Jackpot! , 2012). The Gambling Act of 2005 was introduced to modernize gambling regulations. The act brought increased marketing freedom for gambling companies, but only along with responsibility regarding the advocacy of the potential dangers of addiction. It also required the implementation of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) policy and the anticipated goal was to introduce, acknowledge and bring to light to substantial harm which can stem from problematic gambling. According to the Gambling Act of 2005, in order for a company to obtain their license and legally operate in the marketplace they had to ensure that: i. Gambling is conducted in a fair and open way; ii. Children and other vulnerable people are protected from being harmed or exploited by gambling; and iii. Assistance is made available to people who are, or may be, affected by problems related to gambling. (GamCare: gambling research, education & treatment) With the changing landscape in the industry, it is fair to question whether these regulations are still relevant, and more even importantly, whether companies are still operating within the bounds of the Gambling Act of 2005. Technological advances have led to online websites readily available around the clock, potentially made gambling available to minors (via online casinos, online sports betting) and lost control of potential hazards concerning online users, those being: sobriety (users drunk/high while on a online gaming site); awareness (many ads online promoting gambling, very few raising awareness); and whom is using the sites (minors, youth, seniors, or problematic/addictive users). All of this unsurprisingly raises concerns regarding whether the current regulations are equipped to handle both current and future gambling disputes. Gambling consumption has no doubt increased over the past decade, and will continue to do so for the foreseeable future as regulations are expected to loosen while the marketing budget of online casinos are expected to abruptly expand (Jackpot! , 2012). The bulk of the marketing expenditures will be geared towards youth via interactive media sources; interactive online ad-agencies figure to be the main beneficiary. Though casinos will continue marketing to those who frequent physically existing casinos (a crowd mainly over 50) via television, magazine and billboard advertisements, the majority of the expanded marketing budget figures to be aimed at online users – the vast majority of which are in their 20’s (Jackpot, 2012). There seems to be an array of ethical concerns tied into all of this – whether children and â€Å"other vulnerable people† are still protected from potential harm, how readily available is assistance to those who are affected and is it being outweighed by the onslaught on pro-gambling marketing, concerns regarding online gambling (sobriety, minors, problem identification), and ultimately whether the advocacy is still a priority. A widespread fact in the gambling industry is that 20% of the gambling population accounts for 80% of the gambling industry’s revenue (Galanda, 2007), essentially implying that when evaluating the entire gambling population, 20% are pouring a considerable amount of money into the industry and could potentially be labelled as problematic gamblers. With casinos paying more money and attention to marketing, and marketing research, they are able to identify the age, demographics, frequency and income of their market. Via frequent gambler cards, visas and other channels (surveys for points/credits, casino identification/reloadable slot cards), casinos are able to pick and choose who they zero their marketing efforts in on, whether that be seniors, twenty-somethings or potentially the 20% we earlier identified as problematic gamblers. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) was incorporated into the Gambling Act (2005) as a means of regulatory control and functions as a built-in, self-regulating instrument intended to designate ethical standards to which companies must adhere to. Gambling companies possessing information about their customers, and using this information to formulate a marketing strategy and plan, raises ethical concerns and seeds the question of whether this type of behaviour corresponds to the regulations and ethical policies within CSR. Three main differences between gambling now and nearly a decade ago when the Gambling Act was introduced are: (1) distribution channels have increased accessibility to gambling and exposure to gambling promotion; (2) the technological innovation developed by online casinos is tremendously exceeding government control efforts; and (3) gambling has simply become an international phenomenon – the gambling population is aggressively expanding (Social Marketing & Problem Gambling, 2011). Though the effects and consequences of problem gambling are more extreme and common than ever, the reasons described above explain why it is so difficult for government to control the issue, and moreover why the trend is currently liberalizing ideologies rather than attacking the corporations and addressing the underlying issues.

Non Alcoholic Carbonated Drinks Essays

Non Alcoholic Carbonated Drinks Essays Non Alcoholic Carbonated Drinks Essay Non Alcoholic Carbonated Drinks Essay Essay Topic: Marketing According to AC Nielsen, beverages dominate the list of fastest growing food and beverages categories in the global market place. While water (still and carbonated) was the leading food and beverages product, carbonated beverages experienced 6% of growth rate (2000-2001). Soft drinks consumption worldwide is growing by around 5% a year, according Global Soft drinks 2002. Averagely, the market grew by 5% 6% per year. The zeniths 2002 global soft drinks report indicates that carbonates are the biggest soft drinks sector with 45% of global volume. Besides that, the report also shows that North America is the largest soft drinks market with a 27% volume share in 2001 and the fastest growing countries were Asia, East Europe and the Middle East. Zenith Research Director, Gary Roethenbaugh commented that the highly populous and rapidly emerging markets, such as China and India, consumption in Asia is projected to overtake that of North America in 2006. The overall sustainable growth of soft drinks in the beverages market provides marketer and manufacturer of non alcoholic carbonated soft drinks tremendous opportunity as well as challenges to realize the full potential of the market. To capitalize on the opportunities of the growing market, successful marketers concentrate effort to learn more about their consumers. Most of the time, marketers focus mainly on understanding the consumer decision making process, however, the internal and external influences that affect the overall decision making is also equally important. Consumer Decision Making Process Although consumers of a particular group may be similar in appearance and speaks the same language, that does not always mean they have the same product needs, preference and shopping behaviour. Therefore marketers need to develop a deeper understanding of the psychological, personal, social and culture of the consumers. These are the characteristic that influences the consumers response towards the marketing stimuli which will then affect the consumer decision making process. Most marketing and consumer behaviour books suggest that consumers go through a five-stage decision making process in any purchase. Based on the diagram illustrated in Diagram 1, it is important that marketers consider the whole buying process rather than just the purchase decision as it may be too late for a business to influence the choice made. In most cases, customers pass through all stages in every purchase, however, in more routine purchases, for example toothpaste, household cleaning detergents, customers often skip or reverse some of the stages. For example, a student buying his/her favourite soft drink would recognize the need, in this case thirst and go right to the purchase decision, skipping info search and evaluation. Cultural Factor Country of origins, cultural heritage, language and recent histories, all influences beverage consumption. Successful marketers use these factors to drive decisions about product assortment and marketing in order to appeal to the target market. Culture is the most basic cause of a wants and behaviour. Growing up children learn basic values, perception and wants from the family and other important groups. Marketers of non alcoholic carbonated beverages should always spot cultural shift which might point to a new product that might be wanted by customers or to increase demand. For example, the cultural shift in Malaysia towards greater concern about health and fitness has provided an opportunity to Coca-Cola Light. During the Coca-Cola Light in Kuala Lumpur, Mr Reiner Becker, Country Manger of Coca-Cola Malaysia, said that Coca-Cola Light is intended to be a great-tasting light beverage for consumers currently drink other beverages such as water, tea and juices. (www.prdomain.com/companies/c/coke/news_release.html) Malaysian consumers told us they want to treat themselves, yet they also want to take care of themselves, said Becker. Coca-Cola Light was developed to address this trend. Its got great taste, no calories and imagery that appeals to people who treat themselves as priority. Each culture contains sub cultures, which are groups of people with share values. Sub-cultures can include nationalities, religions, racial groups, or groups of people sharing the same geographical location. Sometimes a sub-culture will create a substantial and distinctive market segment of its own. For example, the youth culture has quite distinct values and buying characteristics from the much older generation. Pepsi uses celebrities like Siti Nurhaliza in Malaysia and F4 in Taiwan for its advertisements to influence the younger generations attitude. Social Factor A consumers buying behaviour is also influenced by social factors, such as the groups to which the customer belongs and social status. Coca-Cola has segmented its consumer into 4 groups which consists of the fashionable brand conscious consumer, average consumers, peer pressure consumers and coke addicts. Based on the 4 segments, the fashionable brand conscious consumer and peer pressure consumers clearly sets the example of group influenced purchased decision. The fashionable brand conscious consumers are generally in their twenties, who are universities students or make up the working class, drive fast cars (or would like to), they socialize with friends, go to parties and dance clubs. They are carefree and are freestyle. When they buy Coca-cola, they buy image, they buy fashionable drink that exudes coolness. On the other hand, the peer pressure consumers tend to be the late majority teenagers who purchase Coca-cola because their friends do it or they do not want to appear daggy purchasing a Sarsi or Sprite. They are less likely to request for Sprite or Sarsi instead of a Coca-Cola when purchasing a value meal at McDonalds for fear of dagginess. (www.coke.com) In a group, several individuals may interact to influence the purchase decision. The typical roles of an individual are initiator, influencer, decider, buyer and user. In the case of carbonated beverages, because it is a low involvement product, most of the time its target consumers could play all the roles at the same time. Motivation Most often, we human mislead ourselves when we attempt to explain our behaviour in our desire to act as retinal human beings. Sometimes we do not want to admit or even realise the real reason for our behaviour because it is, more often that not, irrational. Relating this back to marketing, it is clear that a brand or organisation has both an identity and a personality. When consumers are asked the reason why they buy a brand they will respond rationally and often describe the brands identity, such as the objective or explicit characteristics observed by the conscious thinking brain which are easily verbalised. However, a brand also has a personality, intangible traits that differentiate it from its competitors which we experience but cannot easily verbalise. For example, most consumers initially cite taste as the reason why they consume a certain brand of cola soft drinks. However, during a blind taste test conducted by Pepsi to challenge Coca-Cola drinkers, most loyal consumers could not differentiate their favourite brand. The truth is that these consumers are motivated by a group cohesion, equality and bonding towards the brand. Changes in Asia Pacific The family unit is usually considered to be the most important buying organisation in society. It has been researched extensively. Marketers are particularly interested in the roles and relative influence of the husband, wife and children on the purchase of a large variety of products and services. There is evidence that the traditional husband-wife buying roles are changing. Almost everywhere in the world, the wife is traditionally the main buyer for the family, especially in the areas of food, household products and clothing. However, with increasing numbers of women in full-time work the traditional roles are reversing. Besides, children also play an important role in influencing the buying decision making. In relation to this, and as consumers lifestyles is becoming increasingly demanding, the non alcoholic carbonated industry has become more competitive. Manufacturers are introducing new carbonated drinks such as additional of flavours and attractive packaging to capture market share. For example, Pepsi has introduce the Pepsi Blue, a blueberry flavour drink in addition to its typical cola and diet cola drink, provides consumers additional choices and varieties. The shopping and purchasing habits of consumers are also changing. People are working longer hours than before and as mentioned, many married woman with kids are also working. Todays shoppers want convenience of longer opening and trading hours and Sunday opening which most of the supermarkets and convenience store are doing nowadays. However, the implication for these retailers to work hard in order to maintain customer loyalty made marketers of carbonated drinks to work even harder because more shopping trips means shopper have more opportunity to be disloyal to a brand. Besides, consumers purchasing habits now emphasize on value, convenience and variety. Furthermore, with the advancement in technology, consumers especially the younger generation are buying soft drinks through SMS. Manufacturers who are not adopting this trend are losing opportunity. For example, Coca-Cola drinkers in Singapore are able to order Coca-Cola through sending SMS from their mobile phone and the mechanism work as a vending machine too. With the recent September 11th case, many Muslims countries have conducted boycotts towards American brands. As such, brand like Coca-Cola has been affected in these Muslims countries. As mentioned, cultural shifts towards greater concern in health and fitness may affect the demand for carbonated beverages because the increasing promotion of other health beverages such as cultured milk and traditional drinks creates greater competition. The speed of these changes has created increased pressure on manufacturers and marketers. The challenge for the carbonated drinks marketer is to understand its affect on demand for their products. Everyday, consumers around the world make decision on whether to buy or not to buy a product or brand or opt for that of a competitor. Some are decides when and where to shop. A marketers advertising, direct marketing, merchandising, packaging and point of sale materials affects all these decisions, as are shoppers own motivations and feelings about the shopping occasion and experience. Thus, the promotional mix needs to be changed to attract consumers and maintain their loyalty towards their product. Understanding human needs is critical for effective targeting marketing. However, these needs are not always detectable. The underlying motivations that most of the time marketers are not fully aware of helps maximise the potential of the brand if identified. Conclusion Understanding the changing needs of consumers and effective strategic marketing is critical to stay ahead. It is also important to understand brand relationship by exploring core needs of consumers and how consumers relate to the personality of a brand. For both manufacturers and retailers of carbonated beverages, success and failure is often a result of effective utilisation of market information to meet consumer needs and hence drive sales and profit.

Language Essays - Language, Learning To Read, Lexicography

Language Essays - Language, Learning To Read, Lexicography Grichikhina Anastasia Group 31 III MO 22/11/15 Summary Language The article Language by John Ayto observes the issue of evolution of the English language and how it has changed in connection with the constantly developing social environment. The author analyses the current condition of the English language and presents several ways in which it is evolving. Firstly, John Ayto recognizes the spread of the English language and a great number of its users and various spheres where it is actively used. He states that this situation is caused by the spread of universal education and literacy worldwide in the 19th and 20th centuries. Secondly, the author notices that words are mirror of their times. Moreover, he adds that by analyzing the spheres in which the vocabulary of a language is expanding in a given period, people can form a precise impression of the main preoccupations of society at that time. John Ayto provides such examples as the implementation of military vocabulary after the Second World War, vocabulary concerning destruction of the environment which emerged in the 1970s et cetera. Thirdly, the narrator touches upon the issue of rehabilitation of the words that have been forbidden to speak aloud for some time, and also some books which have been banned for many years because of the usage of so-called Anglo-Saxon words and notorious four-letter words. So, the author points out the tendency to upgrade the status and acceptability of spoken English. However, there is a contrary trend that shows a wide-spread introduction of euphemisms which are used instead of the words which were considered normal and non-offending just a century ago, especially those concerning the issue of race. Finally, the author points out five ways in which new words are created. It happens by creating new meanings of old words, then by producing blends, by converting words to initials, by borrowing words from other languages and by coining new words out of nothing, All in all, the main idea of this article is that every significant change in history always has a fingerprint in our language which is the best way to reflect the spirit of the age.

Book binding Essay Example for Free

Book binding Essay OBJECTIVES:2. OBJECTIVES:The term ‘binding’ is sometimes used to describe the cover of a book. For example, you might refer to a book as having a binding of leather, or being bound in linen. But binding also means the act of attaching many pages to one another to produce a book. Bookbinding is a very old craft and the techniques used in hand-binding have hardly changed over the centuries. Mechanization has changed the way most books are made but hand-bound books still use the same the techniques and equipment. As a craft, bookbinding plays an important role in the production of artist’s books, the preservation of antique books, and in training for fine arts students. As a commercial process, bookbinding plays a role in the lives of any consumer who picks up a book or magazine. Advances in commercial bookbinding techniques have greatly improved the cost, and therefore accessibility, of printed material all over the world. IT: 3. WHAT DID YOU DO TO ORGANIZE IT:A prior permission has been taken from the Teacher-in-Charge of our institution to perform the work. Eight students of class VIII, Sec A are selected to participate with me. The Biology Laboratory of this institution has been selected as the working place. I first told the students the procedure of book binding:†¢ Stapling and Sewing – The collected papers exactly the same sized are piled them up. Then staple down/sewed along one edge. †¢ Gluing – A white paper paste, or â€Å"library paste,† is good for most purposes. †¢ Covering – Any book will be enormously improved if it has some kind of a cover. The cover doesn’t have to be cloth or cardboard or particularly heavy. prasenjitzoology@gmail. com 1 BOOK BINDING CONTRBUTIONS:4. CONTRBUTIONS:†¢ MINE – I directed as well as helped the students how to prepare for such works. †¢ MY HEAD TEACHER – He encouraged and motivated me to perform the work. He also helped me by inspiring the students also. He also helped me by granting a fund for that. †¢ MENTOR – The Principal, Prof. D. P. Nag Chowdhury of the College, Shimurali Sachinandan College of Education was the mentor who helped me mentally as well as providing printed materials to do the work. The Director of the workshop, Prof Trishna Goswami as well as the Coordinator, Prof. S. R. Adhikari of the College, Shimurali Sachinandan College of Education, P. O. – Shimurali, District – Nadia also helped me in many ways. A book binder of that locality also helped various ways to make successful this work. CTIVITY: 5. OUTPUT OF THE ACTIVITY:Students can bind books at home following these simple instructions. This is so simple that the students themselves can make them for the joy of learning science. It can encourage them in publishing business. PERSONAL:6. YOUR PERSONAL:†¢ OBSERVATIONS – Students shortlisted the materials from their book or as directed that are needed to perform the work. Sheets of paper for binding into a book, Bone folder, Studio Tac double-sided adhesive, Heavyweight papers for end pages, Pencil, Jade glue, Paint brush, Headband tape, Craft knife, Binder’s board (acid-free), Book canvas, Iron-on transfer paper (optional)are collected by the students from their homes and market. Then prasenjitzoology@gmail. com 2 BOOK BINDING they started the work following the book binding procedure as stated. My students enjoyed this very much and many of them tried this on their own. †¢ EXPERIENCES – Teaching children about the publishing business entails more than writing stories and creating characters. In fact, you can turn any English lesson into a crafts project by introducing children to bookbinding activities. †¢ DIFFICULTIES – Manipulatives and experiments are teaching aids that the children are allowed to play with and touch. Hence it was a time consuming process. FROM:7. FEED BACK FROM:†¢ STUDENTS – The participants were fully satisfied and wished such programme to be of more and more so that they could update their knowledge & activity. This is the spirit of teaching and learning. With hands on activities they acquire first-hand knowledge which inspires them to pursue the field of publishing to become successful who is the wealth of a nation. †¢ COLLEAGUES – They highly appreciated such activities more and more so that the students can easily understand their lessons. The students can test these works without any fear of cost or breakage. This is so simple that the students themselves can make them for the joy of learning science. Teaching children bookbinding is a way for them to become part of this long tradition of book arts in a fun and imaginative way. †¢ MENTOR – He thanked me so that I have done the work accordingly in involvement with my students in my institution. This will be proved very useful in rural and urban schools as well. ************* prasenjitzoology@gmail. com 3 Book binding. (2016, Sep 08).

TMA T173 01 Many engineering projects are associated with construction Essay

TMA T173 01 Many engineering projects are associated with construction - Essay Example The project aimed at providing an arena for the summer Olympic Games of 2012. The project also aimed at offering an improved sporting experience to that of Beijing, 2008. The British government sought to prove its capabilities of hosting high-profile global sporting events. Following delayed completion of the Wembley renovation, the British engineering sector needed to undertake construction of a new, modern stadium effectively (Woodman, 2007). Funding of the construction was provided by the public sector through the British government. Various companies also contributed significantly towards the funding for the construction. Following economic recession, budgetary allocations for the project had to be distributed among numerous organisations (Dyckhoff, 2007). Though the main contractor was Sir Robert McAlpine, other companies were also awarded sub-contracts. Each element of the construction was undertaken by a different company. This could be attributed to the limited time available for the completion of construction. The main contractor played a supervisory role of the sub-contractors. The benefits for this project include the probability of British construction companies winning tenders for Olympic stadiums’ construction. Successful and timely completion redeemed the image of British companies following delays in completing the Wembley stadium. The finishing of the stadium utilised high-tech decorative wrap to cover the concrete as steel was used for construction. This followed criticisms of the stadium having a dull appearance. The wrap gives the entire stadium a glossy appearance illuminating the London skyline. The spectacular feature of the stadium remains the 25-metre high vertical panels fitted on the exterior side in the stadium. These panels turned the exterior into an enormous video screen (Booth, 2008). The stadium appears like a circular screen from outside. Numerous challenges faced the construction of the Olympic stadium.

Comparison between traditional and online casses Essay

Comparison between traditional and online casses - Essay Example Online classes are gaining prominence in the contemporary world, where there is more favor towards them than traditional classes.In these two types of rather forms of classes,there are certain differences and similarities that set them apart and bring them together respectively,and as a result,there is a need to look into these aspects of the two types of classes. There are a number of distinct similarities and differences between traditional and online lessons, where online lessons provide flexibility, which is only one of the largest advantages of learning or taking lessons online. In online lessons, the flexibility that students have is that it allows them to attend classes at their own convenience, when they have the time, and when they can concentrate without any distractions. In addition to this, there is the flexibility of taking online lessons at one own time when the student is travelling or taking art in other activities simultaneously. This is unlike traditional lessons or classes, where students have fixed schedules to attend classes at the prescribed time rather than attending lessons at their own convenience. However, there is a similarity in this case between the two in that the convenience of flexibility is almost similar in that most schools allow lessons to miss traditional classes when it is not entirely convenient to attend them. This is in cases of severe illness or other emergencies, which makes both traditional and online classes conveniences. ... In these cases, online learning becomes distinct from traditional learning, as learners have to wait for some time to receive feedback, especially in cases where they use email for communication. Students are unable to get direct instruction and immediate feedback, which at times affects performance due to clarity of instruction. On the other hand, traditional learning in the classroom allows students to have immediate feedback from their instructors, which increases motivation for the learners and even simplifies difficult concepts in technical courses and units such as statistics (Stevens and Switzer 97). This is in addition to difficulty in expressing ideas and contributing positively in the learning experience in online lessons because traditional lessons go contrary to this by allowing immediate contribution when called upon by the instructor. Interaction Traditional classroom interaction offers a rich social experience for learners, where they get to interact with one another b eyond conventional academic means, as found in the case of online lessons. In traditional classroom lessons, learners can meet their classmates and exchange ideas on their academic performance and other social aspects bringing them together as a social unit. Although online learning has an interaction platform in the form of chat rooms, through which students post discussion topics and exchange ideas, but they are unable to go beyond these and into the social realm of interpersonal relationships. This serves as both a similarity and a difference between traditional lessons and online lessons where learners can interact, but only through different

CJUS 340 Research Question Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

CJUS 340 Research Question - Essay Example es in which one or two/more parties consent to commit a crime that does not hurt or violate a third party are prostitution, suicide, and gambling (McWilliams, 1996). Since no two victimless crimes are similar, these crimes have been categorized as low level or high level victimless crimes. This research seeks to answer the question â€Å"Is there such a thing as a victimless crime? To obtain and analyze data on this question, interviews and questionnaires will be presented to different types of participants who will have been recruited into the study. The targeted potential participants include inmates, junior and senior criminal justice system officers such as investigators and lawyers. Further, perpetrators of the alleged victimless crimes will be interviewed for their opinions and feelings about their crimes. Through face-to-face interviews and correspondence, participants will be able to give their views on this rather controversial issue. This collection of data will be followe d by an exhaustive analysis of the responses given and presentation of the obtained outcome. To be included in the presentation are the numerous recommendations that the participants will have given in response to questions that seek their opinion on the way forward on the issue of victimless crimes. As is the case in any other research, all the ethical and legal regulations will be obsereved and adhered to during the entire research, particularly the data collection and analysis stages, which require conformity to several legal and ethical requirements. For instance, the consent of all participants will be sought and the implication of their participation made quite clear to them. Further, the information given by participants will be treated

Determine the water resources in your hometown area (Canton, Ohio - Assignment

Determine the water resources in your hometown area (Canton, Ohio - Stark County) - Assignment Example In the end a unified approach will be adapted, incorporating all the perspectives, to address the issue of conservation of water. According to the US 2009 census, the estimated population of Canton-Massillon, Ohio Metropolitan statistical area is 408, 005 (US Census Bureau, 2009). Most of the urban population depends upon ground water for consumption and daily usage purposes. The area receives its water supply through 3 different ecological mechanisms, all of which are interconnected through a complex hydrologic and infiltration cycle. The major sources of water supply are: (1) Precipitation (2) Surface water resources (3) Ground water resources. We will briefly explain each one of them with particularly greater emphasis upon ground water resources and it’s the primary source of water supply to the area. The graphical illustration below reveals that on average 3.5 to 3.7 inches precipitation falls every month on Stark country. However, considering the fact that seasonal changes and yearly extremes severely affect the precipitation rate, the following data may not be reliable while analyzing long term precipitation rate. Data revealed by â€Å"Ohio state university extension fact sheet† demonstrates that, all the minor rivers, streams and lakes eventually drain into Ohio River near Beaver, Pennsylvania and Ohio River at Marietta (in Washington County). Furthermore, the infiltration capacity of soil also plays a significant role as it determines the amount of rainfall water to be trapped on the surface or infiltrate into the soil. As mentioned earlier, the availability of ground water is dependent upon the chemical and physical properties of geologic formation. For a better understanding of ground water resources, the nature of aquifers should be analyzed in detail. As the following figure â€Å"Ground water resource map†

US Energy Consumption Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

US Energy Consumption - Research Paper Example Unfortunately, there has been a relatively stagnation in the number of energy resources that the US and other governments rely on. In order to ensure sustainability of the current energy resources, policies have been formulated to guide the process of exploration of the resources (Korporaal 2012). In most cases, the policies have been developed to guide the process of energy consumption to ensure that it happens with efficiency. In addition to such policies, there have been other strategies formulated to ensure that new sources of energy are made available to the country’s energy sector. The formulation of such policies has, however, attracted different opinions with some people or groups of people opposing them, either wholly or partially. The varied opinions have and continue to contribute to the status of energy consumption in the United States of America (Korporaal 2012). The current status of energy consumption in the US As stated earlier on, there has been an increasing amount of energy consumed by the US population. Specific forms of consumption have been experiencing different growths. In fact, the energy consumed by the industrial sector has experienced very little increase in the past 4 decades. However, the energy consumed in other sectors such as residential, commercial and transportation has experienced growth, in the same period, of about 8000 trillion Btu on average. According to the Energy Information Administration (EIA), there will be a general increase in energy demand in the United States in the next 20 years. This will be as a result of the dramatic shifts in people’s lifestyle. Most of the energy demand will be due to the ever-increasing need for energy to be used in the generation of power to run commercial investments and industries. In the US today, it has been found that about half of the total electricity generated is fro m the use of coal in steam engines. Coal is a fossil fuel subject to depletion in the near future. In addition to this data it has been determined that of all the green house gases emitted in the United States, 85 % of them result from activities or processes supported by the consumption of fossil fuel. This, therefore, means that a reduction in the amount of fossil fuels consumed in the country can result in reduced emission of green house gases emission (Anonymous 2012). The future of energy consumption in the United States According to forecasts done by specialists in the energy sector, the global energy demand will grow in the next 25 year to reach a value of approximately 57%. This will affect the US energy demand in some aspects because it will see it rise by about 30% within the same period. In addition, more than half of the energy used all over the world will occur in the Asian continent by the year 2030 (Katakey 2012). At this particular time the US will have experienced a bout 40% growth in the demand for electricity energy. All these forecasts and estimations indicate the importance of having efficient energy policies in place to put countries of the world, including the US, in a better position to embrace the future together with its challenges. Policies surrounding energy consumption in the US have been formulated in the direction of addressing the state of future energy consumption. The most common policies have included making legislations to guide the development and distribution of renewable energy to cater for the increasing demand, and address the fact that

CJUS 340 Research Question Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

CJUS 340 Research Question - Essay Example es in which one or two/more parties consent to commit a crime that does not hurt or violate a third party are prostitution, suicide, and gambling (McWilliams, 1996). Since no two victimless crimes are similar, these crimes have been categorized as low level or high level victimless crimes. This research seeks to answer the question â€Å"Is there such a thing as a victimless crime? To obtain and analyze data on this question, interviews and questionnaires will be presented to different types of participants who will have been recruited into the study. The targeted potential participants include inmates, junior and senior criminal justice system officers such as investigators and lawyers. Further, perpetrators of the alleged victimless crimes will be interviewed for their opinions and feelings about their crimes. Through face-to-face interviews and correspondence, participants will be able to give their views on this rather controversial issue. This collection of data will be followe d by an exhaustive analysis of the responses given and presentation of the obtained outcome. To be included in the presentation are the numerous recommendations that the participants will have given in response to questions that seek their opinion on the way forward on the issue of victimless crimes. As is the case in any other research, all the ethical and legal regulations will be obsereved and adhered to during the entire research, particularly the data collection and analysis stages, which require conformity to several legal and ethical requirements. For instance, the consent of all participants will be sought and the implication of their participation made quite clear to them. Further, the information given by participants will be treated

US Energy Consumption Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

US Energy Consumption - Research Paper Example Unfortunately, there has been a relatively stagnation in the number of energy resources that the US and other governments rely on. In order to ensure sustainability of the current energy resources, policies have been formulated to guide the process of exploration of the resources (Korporaal 2012). In most cases, the policies have been developed to guide the process of energy consumption to ensure that it happens with efficiency. In addition to such policies, there have been other strategies formulated to ensure that new sources of energy are made available to the country’s energy sector. The formulation of such policies has, however, attracted different opinions with some people or groups of people opposing them, either wholly or partially. The varied opinions have and continue to contribute to the status of energy consumption in the United States of America (Korporaal 2012). The current status of energy consumption in the US As stated earlier on, there has been an increasing amount of energy consumed by the US population. Specific forms of consumption have been experiencing different growths. In fact, the energy consumed by the industrial sector has experienced very little increase in the past 4 decades. However, the energy consumed in other sectors such as residential, commercial and transportation has experienced growth, in the same period, of about 8000 trillion Btu on average. According to the Energy Information Administration (EIA), there will be a general increase in energy demand in the United States in the next 20 years. This will be as a result of the dramatic shifts in people’s lifestyle. Most of the energy demand will be due to the ever-increasing need for energy to be used in the generation of power to run commercial investments and industries. In the US today, it has been found that about half of the total electricity generated is fro m the use of coal in steam engines. Coal is a fossil fuel subject to depletion in the near future. In addition to this data it has been determined that of all the green house gases emitted in the United States, 85 % of them result from activities or processes supported by the consumption of fossil fuel. This, therefore, means that a reduction in the amount of fossil fuels consumed in the country can result in reduced emission of green house gases emission (Anonymous 2012). The future of energy consumption in the United States According to forecasts done by specialists in the energy sector, the global energy demand will grow in the next 25 year to reach a value of approximately 57%. This will affect the US energy demand in some aspects because it will see it rise by about 30% within the same period. In addition, more than half of the energy used all over the world will occur in the Asian continent by the year 2030 (Katakey 2012). At this particular time the US will have experienced a bout 40% growth in the demand for electricity energy. All these forecasts and estimations indicate the importance of having efficient energy policies in place to put countries of the world, including the US, in a better position to embrace the future together with its challenges. Policies surrounding energy consumption in the US have been formulated in the direction of addressing the state of future energy consumption. The most common policies have included making legislations to guide the development and distribution of renewable energy to cater for the increasing demand, and address the fact that

Texting While Driving Essay Example for Free

Texting While Driving Essay About 41% of teen reported that they had texted or emailed while driving. This is true even though there are horrifying commercials and campaigns aimed at keeping teen drivers’ eyes on the road and hands on the wheel. Also, the bulk of teen deaths are due to motor vehicle crashes. But texting and driving isn’t the only risky business teens are engaging in. About 41.3% of teens said they’re using computers for more than 3 hours daily. About 14.8% of students said that they had been bullied online. Another risk that is that sexually active teens are having more unprotected sex that in the past: around 41% of sexually active teens. The annual survey of 9th through 12th graders examines the unhealthy behaviors of teens over the past 12 months is what is used to gage the leads to unintentional injury, obesity, and unplanned pregnancies. About 13,500 surveys, which were administered at public and private high schools, were examined to determine results. It is sad to see the number of teens partaking in risky behaviors rise even though statistics show how many teens are ruining their lives. Schools are now even showing videos of the consequences of partaking in these behaviors and videos of people that tell how the consequences aren’t worth the short term enjoyment. I want to know the mentality of teens that text while driving because judging by their actions, it seems like they value replying to a text more than their own lives. It’s unbelievable how teens still text and drive even though they know that they could die at any moment. Either teens need to change their ways or parents need to start intervening to save their children from becoming victims to risky behaviors.

The Errors Vs Mistakes English Language Essay

The Errors Vs Mistakes English Language Essay According to Brown in order to analyze a learner language, it is important to understand the distinction between errors and mistakes. A mistake refers to a performance error that is either a random guess or a slip, seeing as a failure to use a known system correctly. Mistakes can happen in both native and second language are the result of some sort of temporary breakdown, hesitations, slip of the tongue, random ungrammaticalities, or imperfection in the process of producing speech and can be recognized and corrected by native speakers. However errors are idiosyncrasies in the language of the learner. They are actually deviation from adult grammar of a native speaker. It shows the competence of the learner. Then mistakes are referred to performance errors in which the learner knows the system but fails to use it while errors are the result of ones systematic competence. It means that the learners system is incorrect. According to James cited by Brown (2007) the learner is not able to self correct the errors while mistakes if called, can be corrected by the learner. Then error correction can be used as a means for identification of errors and mistakes. However, Brown noted that making a distinction between errors and mistakes is difficult because if no such error correction occurs, we are not able to distinguish those (2007). Keshavarz (2008, p.49) also noted that there is a distinction between errors and mistakes. Errors are rule governed, systematic in nature, internally principled and free from arbitrariness. They show learners underlying knowledge of the target language that is his transitional competence. In contrast to errors, mistakes are random deviations and unrelated to any system. They are related to performance of the learner and might occur in the speech and writing like slip of the tongue, slip of the ear, slip of the pen, and false start. According to Keshavarz (2008) mistakes are due to non-linguistic factors such as fatigue, strong feeling, memory limitations, and lack of concentration and so on. These kinds of mistakes can be corrected by the learner if brought to his attention. He considered that distinguishing between learners errors and mistakes has always been problematic for teachers and researchers as Corder (1967) and Brown (1987) cited in keshavarz (2008) maintained this problem too. Nevertheless most error analyst use a general criterion for distinguishing between errors and mistakes the frequency of occurrence that is: errors which are low frequent are considered as mistakes or performance errors and those which are high frequent are systematic errors. However this criterion alone is not enough for distinguishing between errors and mistakes because low frequency of certain error may due to the low frequency of grammatical patterns or avoidance strategy that a learner uses. Then error analyst should consider casual factors of learners deviant structures as a means of distinguishing between errors and mistakes. According to Corder (1997) cited in Park (2010) errors refer to learners underlying knowledge of the language and mistakes refer to incorrect forms caused by memory lapses, slips of the tongue and other instances of performance errors. Corder considered that learners can correct their own mistakes but they cannot correct their errors because they do not have enough knowledge to distinguish their own utterance and that of the native speaker. He also pointed out two explanations with regard to learner errors. First, the occurrence of errors is merely a sign of the present inadequacy of the teaching techniques (p. 163). That is, if it were possible for teachers to achieve a perfect teaching method, there would be no occurrence of student errors in the target language. The second explanation is that despite teachers best efforts, the occurrence of errors is inevitable because errors occur for many reasons. The reasons can be: interference from L1, overgeneralization, an incomplete knowle dge of the target language, the complexity of the target language, and fossilization. Therefore, teachers should be more concerned with how to deal with students errors than the simple identification of them. For this study, I will use the terms errors and mistakes interchangeably because sometimes it is difficult to distinguish students errors from mistakes. Identification of Errors: (Categories of Error) Corder (1971) cited by Brown (2007) provided a model for identification of errors. Based on his model any sentences uttered by the learner can be analyzed for idiosyncrasies. According to his model there are two types of error: overt and covert errors. Overtly incorrect utterances are ungrammatical at the sentence level and covertly incorrect utterances are grammatically correct at the sentence level but are not interpretable within the context of communication. Then overt errors are sentence level and covert errors are discourse level errors. Burt (1975) cited in Park (2010) categorized errors as global and local ones. Global errors are errors that hinder communication and affect the overall organization of the sentence such as wrong word order, missing, wrong or misplaced sentence connectors however local errors do not usually hinder communication and affect single elements in a sentence such as error in noun and verb inflections, articles, and auxiliaries. He mentioned that the correction of global error clarifies the intended message more than the correction of several local errors. Moreover he argued that teachers should correct high frequent errors first. From another perspective Chaudron (1977, p.32) cited by Park (2010) classified the range of errors from linguistic (phonological, morphological, syntactic) to subject matter content (factual and conceptual knowledge) and lexical items. Valdman( 1975) cited in (salim shahin) provided the same division as Burt and said that in the case of global error the communicatio n between the student and teacher will be blocked and the student requires correction but in the case of local error, communication between the teacher and the student will not be blocked and it is up to the teacher to require the correction of the error, or let the error passes. Hammerley( 1991) cited in (Salim Shahin, 2003) classified errors into surface and deep. According to him surface errors need minor corrections and explanations while deep errors require explanation of why the error was made and what the correct form is. Hendrickson (1978) cited in (Salim Shahin, 2003) divided errors into three main types. 1) errors that hinders communication; 2) errors that have highly stigmatizing effect on the listener or reader but do not hinder communication; 3) errors that can be described as lapses that students usually have in their utterances. These errors are quite common in the speakers utterances yet they hardly block communication between the speaker and his interlocutor. Mackey et al. (2000) cited by Park (2010) categorized four types of errors in their analysis of L2 interactional data as phonological, morphosyntactic, lexical, and semantic ones.1) Phonological errors were non-target like pronunciation; 2) morphosyntactic errors were omitted plural-s and the preposition in; 3) lexical errors were inappropriate lexical items; 4) semantic errors were incorrect meaning or expression. Prabhu (1987) cited in (Salim shahin, 2003) divides errors on the basis of their treatment rather than their nature. According to his division there are two kinds of error: systematic and incidental errors. Systematic errors are those that deviate from the native speakers form and the teacher uses linguistic explanation, long interruptions, and exemplification to help and correct learners error. But Incidental errors do not require linguistic explanation or exemplification from the teacher, such as when the teacher corrects a pronunciation error or when he raises his eyebrows to draw the students attention to the error. Moreover Lennon (1991) cited by Brown (2007) identified different categories for description of errors: Errors of addition, omission, substitution, ordering Level of errors: phonology or orthography, lexicon, grammar and discourse Global and local errors: an error that hinders communication or prevents hearer or reader from understanding some aspect of a message is global and an error that does not prevent a message from being understood, usually due to a minor violation of one segment of a sentence, allowing a hearer or a reader to make an accurate guess about the intended meaning is a local error. (burtkiparsky, 1972 cited by Brown, 2007) Domain and extent error: domain error is the rank of linguistic unit from phoneme to discourse that must be taken as context in order for the error to become apparent. Extent error is the rank of linguistic unit that would have to be deleted, replaced, supplied, or recorded in order to repair the sentence. Other educators like Allwright (1975) cited in (Salim Shahin, 2003) believed that errors should be treated on the basis of their frequency, rather than on their classification. Then errors of high frequency should be given more attention and emphasis than errors of low frequency. Some Definitions in Error Correction: There are different terms when providing feedback in response to learner error in second language acquisition. These are repair, treatment, feedback, negative evidence and correction. Brown (2007, p.388) defined repair as correction by the learner of an ill-formed utterance, either through self-initiated repair or in response to feedback. Chaudron (1988) cited in Dabaghi (2006) defined treatment as any teacher behavior that follows error and shows the error to the learner. Ellis (1994a) cited by (Dabaghi, 2006) also identified feedback as a general cover term in which listeners provide information on the reception and the comprehension of the messages. Lightbown and Spadal (1999) cited in Dabaghi (2006) defined corrective feedback as an indication to the learners that they use target language incorrectly. According to Ellis (1994a) cited by Dabaghi (2006) correction has a narrower meaning than these terms. It is any attempt to provide negative evidence in the form of feedback that draw learners attention to the errors they have made. As Schachter (1991) cited by Dabaghi (2006) said corrective feedback, negative evidence and negative feedback are terms that are respectively used in the field of language teaching, language acquisition, and cognitive psychology. Most of the researchers use these terms interchangeably. In the present research we use error correction and corrective feedback interchangeably whenever the general sense of feedback provision was involve. Types of spoken error correction: According to Lyster Rantas model (1997) cited by Coskum (2010) the types of spoken error correction are as follows: Explicit correction: clearly indicating that the students utterance was incorrect, the teacher provides the correct form. S: there is a little milk in fridge. T: + in the fridge Recast: the teacher implicitly reformulates the students error, or provides the correction without directly pointing out that the students utterance was incorrect. In other words it is the teachers reformulation of all or part of a students utterance, minus the error. S: he like pop-music. T: yes, he likes pop-music Clarification request: the teacher indicates that the message has not been understood or that the students utterance included some kind of mistake and that a repetition or a reformulation is required by using phrases like Excuse me? S: there arent many /hotÄ ±ls/ in this town. T: again? à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ Metalinguistic clues: the teacher poses questions like Do we say it like that? or provides comments or information related to the formation of the students utterance without providing the correct form. Metalinguistic clues contain comments, information or questions related to the well formedness of the students utterance, without explicitly providing the correct form. Metalinguistic comments generally indicate that there is an error somewhere. Metalinguistic information generally provides either some grammatical metalanguage that refers to the nature of the error or a word definition in the case of lexical errors. Metalinguistic questions also point to the nature of the error but attempt to elicit the information from the student. S: there isnt any books. T: + there isnt gà ¶rà ¼nce uncountable, yani sayÄ ±lamayan bir Ã…Å ¸ey kullanmamÄ ±z gerekiyormuÃ…Å ¸. Ds: there isnt any money Elicitation: the teacher directly elicits the correct form from the student by asking questions (e.g. How do I ask somebody to clean the board?), by pausing to allow the student to complete the teachers utterance (e.g. He is a good à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..) or by asking students to reformulate the utterance (e.g. Can you say that again?). Elicitation questions differ from questions that are defined as metalinguistic clues in that they require more than yes/no response. It refers to at least techniques that teachers use to directly elicit the correct form from the students. First teachers elicit completion of their own utterance by strategically pausing to allow students to fill in the blank as it were. Second, teachers use questions to elicit correct forms. Such questions exclude the use of yes/no questions. The question likes Do we say that in English is metalinguistic feedback, not elicitation. Third teachers occasionally ask students to reformulate their utterance. S: there are a few books in my /lÄ ±brari/ T: in myà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦? à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ Repetition: the teacher repeats the students error and changes intonation to draw students attention to it. S: How much money do you have in your /pakÄ ±t/? T: /pakÄ ±t/? à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ DS: /pokÄ ±t/ T: yes Sources of Error: According to Brown (2007, p.263) there are four sources of error: 1) Interlingual transfer: it is a significant source of error for all learners. It is the effect of one language (usually the first) on another (usually the second). At early stages of learning a second language, the linguistic system of the native language is the only system that a learner is familiar with. Then the native linguistic system can interfere or transfer and cause some errors in second language. 2) Intralingual transfer: Another source of error which goes beyond the interlingual transfer is intralingual transfer. It is the effect of forms of one language (usually the target language) on other forms within the same language. According to Odlin (2003), Jaszczolt (1995) and Taylor (1975) cited by Brown (2007) once learners have begun to learn the system of second language, it is the system of second language that cause error. In fact intralingual transfer that is generalization within the target language occurs. 3) Context of learning: The third source of error is context of learning which is called false concept by Richard (1971) and induced error by Stenson (1979) cited by Brown (2007). It overlaps two types of transfer and refers to classroom, materials and social situation that can lead learners to make faulty hypotheses about the language. 4) Communication strategies: The forth source of error is communication strategies. They are production strategies that learners use to enhance getting their message across, but these strategies can become a source of error. Moreover Corder (1975) cited by Keshavarz (2008, p101) distinguished three types of sources of errors: Inter lingual errors which are caused by first language interference Intralingual errors that are caused by the learners generalizing and over generalizing particular rules. Errors caused by faulty teaching techniques. Another classification was considered by Dualy and Burt cited by Keshavarz (2008, p. 101) for second language learners error which are called goofs: Interference-like goofs: errors which show native language structure and are not found in first language acquisition data of the target language. L1-developmental goofs: errors that do not reflect native language structure but are found in L1 acquisition data of the target language Ambiguous goofs: those errors that can be as either interference-like goofs or L1 developmental goof. Unique goofs: errors that do not reflect L1 structure and also not found in L1 acquisition data of the target language. Significance of errors: Many scholars in the field of error analysis have stressed the significance of second language learners error. For example Corder (1967) cited by Keshavarz (2008) remarked that errors are significant in three ways: First errors are significant to the teacher in that they help him to understand how much the learner has progressed and what remains for him to learn. Second errors provide evidence for the learner to recognize how language is learnt or acquired and what strategies and procedures are used by the learner to discover the language. Third errors are important to the learner himself in which they are a device the learner uses in order to learn. Moreover Richard (1971) cited by Keshavarz (2008, p.45) noted that errors are significant and of interest to: 1) Linguistics, because according to Chomsky the study of human language is the best way of understanding the human intelligence; 2) Psychologists, because by comparing childrens and adults speech, they can examine the nature of the mental processes that seem to be involved in language; 3) Teachers, because by analyzing learners errors, they would be able to discover their difficulties and devise a method for comparing them. Besides, Jain (1974) cited by Keshavarz (2008) maintained 2 reasons for the significance of error: Understanding the process of second language acquisition Planning courses incorporating the psychology of second language learning. Other researchers like Dulay and Burt (1975) cited by Dabaghi (2006) stressed the significance of error by indicating two major reasons: 1) error provides data from which interferences about the nature of the language learning processes can be made, and 2) it shows to the teachers and curriculum developers in which part of the language, learners have difficulty with and which error types detract most from the learners ability to communicate effectively. Historical perspectives of error correction: Russel (2009) noted that error correction is a controversial issue in the field of second language education (SLE) and second language teacher education (SLTE). How to correct errors depends on the methodological perspectives of teachers. In behaviorist teaching models such as audio lingual method that was popular in 1950s and 1960s, error correction was stressed at all cost. Behaviorists believed that errors were inevitable but they tried to provide the correct form immediately. Brooks (1960, p.56) cited by Russull (2009) considered that like sin, error is to be avoided and its influence overcomesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ the best way to overcoming errors is to shorten the time lapse between the incorrect response and a presentation of correct form. However in 1970s the value of grammar instruction and error correction in behaviorist model was questioned. Russull (2009) considered that in 1970s and 1980s some scholars claimed that error correction was not only unnecessary but also harmful to second language acquisition. The most well known model which was against error correction was Stephan Krashens monitor model which has five hypotheses about language learning. Rashtchi keshavarz (2007) noted that the learners affective an d emotional status can act as filters which do not allow easy absorption of input. It means that affective filter will hinder the process of learning (p.76). Moreover they noted that according to natural order hypothesis all linguistic elements and skills are learned in a predictable order and this order is not influenced by the native language of the learners. Russell (2009) mentioned that Terrell created the natural approach which is a method that emphasizes the development of communicative competence. According to his approach affective rather than cognitive factors are primary concern in the language classroom and correction of learners error is negative in terms of motivation, attitude and embarrassment. In this approach teacher never correct the learner oral errors. Then learners themselves should study grammatical structures in order to correct their mistakes. Communicative language teaching approach became popular in 1980s and like natural approach focuses on communicative competence and notional functional concepts over the instruction of grammatical structures. (Richards Rogers (1986) cited by Russell (2009). The objective in CLT is the development of fluency and acceptable language use and since emphasize is on meaning over form, error correction is not of primary importance. However when learners accuracy is assessed, it is always done in context. (Omaggio Hadley, 2001 cited by Russell), and in 1990s some researchers assert that explicit grammar instruction, error correction and focus on form could promote SLA. (Aljaafreh Lantolf, 1994; Doughy Varela, 1993; Ellis, 1993, 1994; Fotos, 1994; Long 1996; Schmidt, 1990, 1993, 1995; Sharwood Smith, 1993). Error correction and second language acquisition: According to Dabaghi (2006, p. 25) there are different views and opinions about language teaching and learning in which the changes in methodologies, materials and attitudes toward second language learning have always been important to language experts. Since error correction cannot be separated from these views and opinions, it must be discussed in terms of its relation to the theories of second language acquisition. In the following sections, we can see a number of second language acquisition theories and models that in some way affect our understanding of error correction. Contrastive analysis model: In the era of contrastive analysis and audiolingualism, there was a negative approach towards errors. According to Stern (1983) cited in Dabaghi (2006, p.25) some of the scholars during 1950s and 1960s had a puritanical perspective about errors committed by second language learners and as Brooks (1960) cited by (Dabaghi, 2006, p.25) said like sin, error is to avoid and its influence overcome but its presence is to be expected. According to Dulay, Burt, and Krashen (1982) cited by Dabaghi (2006), in contrastive analysis, there is a comparison between learners native and target language and these differences cause the majority of an second language learners errors. Based on behaviorist view which was prevalent at that time, learning is a process of habit formation and errors from first language habits interfere with the learners attempt to learn new linguistic behaviors. Then to avoid errors, teachers should prevent and correct errors and shorten the time lapse between the incorrect response and the correct model. But as Dabaghi (2006, p.26) said, paying too much attention to prevention of errors and teaching learners to use language creatively in response to expected and unexpected stimuli in the environment are the drawback of contrastive analysis model and structural approach and caused the very foundation of contrastive analysis as a result of Chomskys transformational generative grammar, which emphasize d the active participation of the learners mind in processing data. In short, according to CA, learning is a process of habit formation and interfering language habits with learners attempts to learn new linguistic behaviors cause errors. Then the audio lingual approaches to teaching aimed to prevent learners from committing errors and believed that errors should be corrected immediately. Inter language model: In inter language era the second language learner was considered to be an autonomous creator of a language system who has a built-in-syllabus (Corder (1981) cited by Dabaghi (2006, p. 26)). It means that a learner is equipped with an internally programmed sequence which is sometimes in accordance with what teacher teaches and sometimes contradictory and learner follows his/her own build in syllabus. According to this view errors are the evidence of the learners present transitional competence and manifest the way the learner processes the input in her linguistic environment. Dabaghi (2006, p.27) mentioned that the inter language view of language acquisition believed on the whole role of language learning to the language learner and weaken the impact of negative evidence in second language development. According to this view, if negative evidence is provided within the syllabus predetermined in the mind of language learners, it can be effective otherwise it causes frustration and confusion for the learner and teachers. This view was strengthened by non-interventionist view taken by Dulay and Burt (1973), Krashen (1983) and Prabhu(1987) cited by Dabaghi (2006) who argued that grammar instruction should be abandoned in order to let the learner acquire the language from untutored language setting. The teacher should only provide the learner with opportunities for natural use of language. To sum up, the inter language model considered second language learners as self governing creator of a language system who follow their own built in learning program which c an sometimes benefit from error correction and sometimes not. Krashens Input Hypotheses: it is commonly known that for the acquisition of a second language, input that is provided either by a teacher or by another learner is essential. Corder (1967) cited by (Faqeih, 2012) distinguished input from intake. According to him, what is available to the learner is called input and what is actually internalized is called intake. According to Faqeih (2012) Krashen proposed the most influential theory of the role of input in second language acquisition in 1980. He noted that for the acquisition of second language, learners must be exposed to comprehensible meaningful input which contains linguistic data that are a little beyond learners knowledge (i+1) where i is the second language learners current linguistic competence and (i+1) is the next level of that competence achieved with comprehensible input ( Krashen, 1985 cited by Faqeih, 2012). He also suggested that production of the target does not directly aid acquisition. Krashen considered that learners can make use of three kin ds of contextual information: extra-linguistic information that is learners knowledge of the world and previously acquired linguistic competence; the input that can be available via interaction; and interaction in which meaning has to be negotiated e.g. when there is a communication problem. Krashen (1985) cited by (Faqeih, 2012) also distinguished learning and acquisition. He considered that acquisition uses unconscious processes and those grammatical rules are not helpful. In other words, second language is acquired more like first language and parents focus on communication and meaning instead of focusing on explicit instruction of the language. He also implied that if input is understood and there is enough of it, the necessary grammar is automatically learnt. He also argued that error correction (= negative evidence) do not improve second language performance. On the other hand learning is the conscious process that involves the memorization of many formal grammatical rules and error correction can have a role in this. According to him learning leads to grammatical and mechanical knowledge of the language, but it does not lead to fluency. Note that although Krashen distinguished between learning and acquisition, but this thesis uses them interchangeably. According to Faqeih (2012) Krashens input hypothesis is supported by some scholar such as Shwartz (1993) and Truscott (1996). They noted that for learners to acquire second language, only positive evidence that is a model from the target language is sufficient and negative feedback such as implicit and explicit feedback to any non target like feature in learners speech does not help learning and that structures learned through error correction cannot become part of internal grammar. They also proposed the negative effects of error correction such as confusing the learners, causing over use of a particular form or interfering with natural language acquisition processes. Others like Lightbown Spada 1993 cited by Faqeih (2012) said that excessive use of error correction lead to lower motivation. According to Krashens affective filter, classroom teachers should not focus intentionally or explicitly on errors of language from during class but should instead provide comprehensible input t o learners. Other scholars such as Mitchell Myles (2004) cited by Faqeih (2012) criticized this hypothesis because of lacking in empirical evidence and untreatable owing to its vagueness. Moreover White (1987) criticized Krashens input hypothesis for not considering the possible benefits of providing rules, said that certain types of errors may need rules instruction. Others like Ellis, Tanaka, Yamazaki (1994) cited by Faqeih 2012 considered that although interaction can solve communication problems through negotiation and increased comprehension, it does not mean that increased comprehension automatically leads to L2 acquisition; that is, learners may not necessarily retain the comprehended target language. Longs Interaction Hypothesis: Based on Krashens input Hypothesis in which input is important for acquisition to take place, Long suggested his own interaction hypothesis (Long, 1996, 2007 cited by Faqeih (2012)). He considered that input is not sufficient on its own for language learning to occur and some type of negative evidence may be beneficial role in acquisition and more attention should be given to the interaction that learners are engaged in. In 1996 he updated his hypothesis and mentioned that some controversial strategies such as repetitions, confirmation checks, comprehension checks, clarification request or recasts can solve communication problems. This kind of interaction involved components like negotiation, recasts, and feedback. According to Long (2007) cited by Faqeih (2012) interactional feedback is very important aspect for language development because it helps learners become aware of their error, and notice the mismatches between their inter language and the target language. It also encourage s learners to hypothesize the correct form and test them and modify their inter language. Long (2007) cited by Faqeih (2012, p.29) claimed that for error correction to be affective, simultaneous focus on form and meaning should be provided in a classroom context and the best strategy for the negotiation for meaning is recast, Because it is implicit and does not interrupt the flow of interaction. Dabaghi ( 2006, p.28) mentioned that according to Long, when there is a conversation between two interlocutors ( native speakers and non native speaker) there are both similarities and differences in the form of grammatical complexity between them. They use some conversational tactics such as clarification request, repetition or comprehension checks. It shows that the non native speaker or less component interlocutor is experiencing comprehension problems and using these tactics is very useful in language learning. In the process of interactional adjustments, both interlocutors make effort to understand each other. It means that they adjust their input to make it more comprehensible that is i+1 in Krashens term. However this hypothesis was criticized by Braidi (1995